Extraction of Essential Oils Using Steam Distillation

Extraction of Essential Oils Using Steam Distillation Acknowledging about the importance of plants and its medicinal value research work is being done on the plant material. There are also over 200 references to aromatics, incense and ointments in the Old and New Testaments; Frankincense, Myrrh, Galbanum, Cinnamon, Cassia, Rosemary, Hyssop and Spikenard are noted for being used for anointing rituals and healing of the sick. Research has confirmed centuries of practical use of essential oils, and we now know that the fragrant pharmacy contains compounds with an extremely broad range of biochemical effects. The oils normally bear the name of the plant species from which they are derived. Essential oils are so termed as they are believed to represent the very essence of odor and flavor. The recovery of essential oil (the value added product) from the raw botanical starting material is very important since the quality of the oil is greatly influenced during this step. There are a variety of methods for obtaining volatile oils from plants. S team distillation method is found to be one of the promising techniques for the extraction of essential oil from plants as reputable distiller will preserve the original qualities of the plant and is being done in Clevenger apparatus. Analysis of Essential oil is done Gas Chromatography which gives us some indications of the quality and authenticity of the oil. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Essential oils contain highly volatile substances that are isolated by a physical method or process from plants of a single botanical species. The oils normally bear the name of the plant species from which they are derived. Essential oils are so termed as they are believed to represent the very essence of odor and flavor. Essential oil plants and culinary herbs include a broad range of plant species that are used for their aromatic value as flavorings in foods and beverages and as fragrances in pharmaceutical and industrial products. Essential oils derive from aromatic plants of many genera distributed worldwide. Oils are used in the embalming process, in medicine and in purification rituals. There are also over 200 references to aromatics, incense and ointments in the Old and New Testaments. Research has confirmed centuries of practical use of Essential Oils, and we now know that the fragrant pharmacy contains compounds with an extremely broad range of biochemical effects. There are about three hundred essential oils in general use today by professional practitioners. Continual bombardment of viral, bacterial, parasitic and fungal contamination occurs in our body. Essential oils are a great benefit to help protect our bodies and homes from this onslaught of pathogens. Immune system needs support and these essential oils can give the required endorsement. [1] Steam distillation is used in the extraction of Essential Oil from the plant material. It is a special type of distillation or a separation process for temperature sensitive materials like oils, resins, hydrocarbons, etc. which are insoluble in water and may decompose at their boiling point. The fundamental nature of steam distillation is that it enables a compound or mixture of compounds to be distilled at a temperature substantially below that of the boiling point(s) of the individual constituent(s). Essential Oil contains components with boiling points up to 200 °C or higher temperatures. In the presence of steam or boiling water, however, these substances are volatilized at a temperature close to 100 °C, at atmospheric pressure. [2] Analysis of Essential Oil is done by using Gas Chromatography with Mass Spectrometer. The qualitative and quantitative analysis is done to know the constituents in the oil and the percentage of components present in the oil respectively, by doing so we can know the purity of that particular oil. [3] CHAPTER 2:  LITERATURE REVIEW It is estimated that there are 250,000 to 500,000 species of plants on Earth. A relatively small percentage (1 to 10%) of these is used as foods by both humans and other animal species. It is possible that even more are used for medicinal purposes (Moerman, D. E. 1996). Moerman (1996) reported that while 625 species of plants have been used by various Native American groups as food, 2,564 have found use as drugs. According to his calculations, this leaves approximately 18,000 species of plants which were used for neither food nor drugs. [4] Plant oils and extracts have been used for a wide variety of purposes for many thousands of years (Jones 1996). These purposes vary from the use of rosewood and cedar wood in perfumery, to flavoring drinks with lime, fennel or juniper berry oil, and the application of lemongrass oil for the preservation of stored food crops. In particular, the antimicrobial activity of plant oils and extracts has formed the basis of many applications, including raw and processed food preservation, pharmaceuticals, alternative medicine and natural therapies. Since ancient times, herbs and their essential oils have been known for their varying degrees of antimicrobial activity. More recently, medicinal plant extracts were developed and proposed for use in food as natural antimicrobials. 2.1 DEFINITION: An essential oil is a concentrated, hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile, ethereal oils or aetherolea, or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted, such as oil of clove. Oil is essential in the sense that it carries a distinctive scent, or essence, of the plant. [5] Essential oils are frequently referred to as the life force of plants. These essential oils are extracted from flowers, leaves, stems, roots, seeds, bark, and fruit rinds. The amount of essential oils found in these plants can be anywhere from 0.01 percent to 10 percent of the total. These oils have potent antimicrobial factors, having wide range of therapeutic constituents. These oils are often used for their flavor and their therapeutic or odoriferous properties, in a wide selection of products such as foods, medicine, and cosmetics. Only pure oils contain a full spectrum of compounds that cheap imitations simply cannot duplicate. [5] 2.2 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF ESSENTIAL OILS: An Essential Oil contains more than 200 chemical components, but some are many times more complex. Essential oils consist of chemical compounds which have hydrogen, carbon and oxygen as their building blocks. They can be essentially classified into two groups: Volatile fraction: Essential oil constituting of 90-95% of the oil in weight, containing the monoterpene and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, as well as their oxygenated derivatives along with aliphatic aldehydes, alcohols, and esters. Nonvolatile residue: This comprises 1-10% of the oil, containing hydrocarbons, fatty acids, sterols, carotenoids, waxes, and flavonoids. However the properties of these components can change. For example, the components from the oils extracted from plants can change according to how, when and where these plants are grown and harvested. [6] The constituents can be again subdivided into 2 groups, such as the hydrocarbons which are made up of mostly terpenes and the oxygenated compounds which are mainly alcohols, aldehydes, esters, ketones, phenols and oxides. Some of the common components are listed below along with their properties. Alcohols: Alcohols are generally considered safe and have a very low or totally absent toxic reaction in the body or on the skin and so can be used on children. They are extremely useful due to their antiviral, antibacterial and antiseptic properties. Alcohols are present either as a free compound or combined with a terpene or ester and are found in ylang -ylang and lavender as linalool, geraniol in geranium and palmarosa and citronellol found in rose, lemon and eucalyptus. Other alcohols include menthol, nerol and benzyl alcohol. Alderhydes: Alderhydes are found in lemon-scented oils such as Melissa, lemon verbena, citronella etc. and include citral, citronellal and neral. They generally have sedative qualities with specific antiseptic properties. Other known alderhydes include benzaldehyde, cinnamic alderhyde and perillaldehyde. Essential oils containing alderhydes are helpful in treating inflammation, Candida and viral infections. [6] Hydrocarbon: Building blocks of Essential Oil are hydrogen and carbon. Basic Hydrocarbon found in plants is isoprene having the following structure. (Isoprene) Terpenes: These components generally have names ending with ene. Some of them are limonene, pinene, piperene, camphene etc. These components act as an antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antiviral and bactericidal. These are further categorized into monoterpene, sesquiterpene and diterpenes. When two of the isoprene units are joined head to tail, the result is a monoterpene, when three are joined, its a sesquiterpene and similarly four linked isoprene units are diterpenes. Monoterpene [C10H16]: Monoterpene are naturally occurring compounds, the majority being unsaturated hydrocarbons (C10).But some of their oxygenated derivatives such as alcohols, Ketones, and carboxylic acids known as monoterpenoids. (Limonene) (Menthol) Two isoprene units are present in these branched-chain C10 hydrocarbons and are widely distributed in nature with more than 400 naturally occurring monoterpenes. Moreover, besides being linear derivatives (Geraniol, Citronellol), the monoterpenes can be cyclic molecules (Menthol Monocyclic; Camphor bicyclic; Pinenes (ÃŽÂ ± and ÃŽÂ ²) Pine genera as well. Thujone (a monoterpene) is the toxic agent found in Artemisia absinthium (wormwood) from which the liqueur absinthe, is made. Borneol and camphor are two common monoterpenes. Borneol, derived from pine oil is used as a disinfectant and deodorant. Camphor is used as a counterirritant, anesthetic, expectorant, and antipruritic, among many other uses. Sesquiterpene: Sesquiterpenes are biogenetically derived from farensyl pyrophosphate and in structure may be linear, monocyclic or bicyclic. They constitute a very large group of secondary metabolites, some having been shown to be stress compounds formed as a result of disease or injury. These are having properties like anti-inflammatory, anti-septic, analgesic and anti-allergic. Sesquiterpene Lactones: These are available as farnesene in chamomile and lavender. They not only have proved to be of interest from chemical and chemotaxonomic point of view, but also possess many antitumor, anti-leukemia, cytotoxic and antimicrobial activities. Chemically the compounds can be classified according to their carboxylic skeletons; thus, guaianolides, pseudoguaianolides, eudesmanolides, eremophilanolides, xanthanolides, etc. can be derived from the germacranolides. Structural features of all these compounds are associated with much of the biological activity. For example beta-caryophyllene in basil and black pepper Diterpenes: Isoprene has been an integral part in most of the components as there are four isoprene units in Diterpenes. By Stem Distillation method we cannot detect Diterpenes as this molecule is too heavy to allow for evaporation, so it is rarely found in distilled Essential Oils. Diterpenes occur in all plant families and consist of compounds having a C20 skeleton. There are about 2500 known Diterpenes that belong to 20 major structural types. Derivatives of Diterpenes are plant hormones Gibberellins and phytol occurring as a side chain on chlorophyll. The biosynthesis occurs in plastids and interestingly mixtures of monoterpenes and diterpenes are the major constituents of plant resins. In a similar manner to monoterpenes, Diterpenes arise from metabolism of geranyl geranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP). Therapeutically Diterpenes have limited importance and are used in certain sedatives (coughs) as well as in antispasmodics and anxiolytics. Alcohols: Naturally Alcohols exist either as a free compound or combined with a terpenes or ester. When terpenes are attached to an oxygen atom, and hydrogen atom, the result is an alcohol. When the terpene is monoterpene, the resulting alcohol is called a monoterpenol. Alcohols are not and are suitable to body or skin. Therefore, they are considered safe to use. Some of these properties are anti-septic, anti-viral, bactericidal and germicidal. Some of the examples are linalool found in ylang-ylang and lavender, geraniol in geranium and rose and nerol in neroli. Aldehydes: Aldehyde containing Essential Oils are effective in treating candida and other fungal infections. Some of these properties are anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-septic, anti-viral, bactericidal, disinfectant, and sedative. Aldehydes are present as citral in lemon, Citronellal in lemongrass, lemon balm and citrus eucalyptus. Acids: Generally Organic acids are found in very small quantities in their free state within Essential Oils. Plant acids act as components or buffer systems to control acidity. These also act anti-inflammatory. Examples are cinnamic and benzoic acid in benzoin, Citric and lactic. Esters: Esters are formed through the reaction of alcohols with acids. Essential oils containing esters are used for their soothing, balancing effects. Because of the presence of alcohol, they are effective antimicrobial agents. Medicinally, esters are characterized as antifungal and sedative, with a balancing action on the nervous system. They generally are free from precautions with the exception of methyl salicylate found in birch and wintergreen which is toxic within the system. Examples are linlyl acetate in bergamot and lavender and Geranyl formate in geranium. Ketones: Ketones found in plants are used for upper respiratory complaints. They assist the flow of mucus and ease congestion. Essential oils containing ketones are beneficial for promoting wound healing and encouraging the formation of scar tissue. Ketones are (not always) very toxic. The most toxic ketone is Thujone found in mugwort, sage, tansy, thuja and wormwood oils. Other toxic ketones found in essential oils are pulegone in pennyroyal, and pinocamphone in hyssops. Some non-toxic ketones are jasmone in jasmine oil, fenchone in fennel oil, carvone in spearmint and dill oil and menthone in peppermint oil. Lactones: Lactones are known to be particularly effective for their anti-inflammatory action, possibly by their role in the reduction of prostaglandin synthesis and expectorant actions. Lactones have an even stronger expectorant action than ketones. [Previous thesis] 2.3 ADVANTAGES OF ESSENTIAL OIL: AROMATHERAPHY: Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine that uses volatile plant materials, known as essential oils, and other aromatic compounds for the purpose of altering a persons mood, cognitive function or health. Science has discovered that our sense of smell plays a significant role in our overall health. Since ancient times Essential Oils have been used in medicine because of their medicinal properties, for example some oils have antiseptic properties. In addition, many have an uplifting effect on the mind, though different essential oils have different properties. Working of Essential Oil in Aromatherapy: when Essential Oil is inhaled it goes directly from olfactory system to limbic system of the brain. Brain responds to the particular scent affecting our emotions and chemical balance. Essential Oils also absorbed by the skin and carried throughout the body via the circulatory system to reach all internal organs. We can be benefited by choosing carefully the desired and suitable oils which can promote overall health. Benefits depend upon the unique nature of each persons response to an aromatic stimulus. [1] Importance of Essential Oil in pharmaceutics: Essential Oils have versatile applications in pharmaceutics. Some of the applications are listed below. Antiseptics: The antiseptic properties of Essential Oil make them active against wide range of bacteria as on antibiotic resistant strains. In addition to this they are also against fungi and yeasts. The most common sources of essential oils used as antiseptics are: Cinnamon, Thyme, Clover, Eucalyptus, Culin savory, Lavender. Citral, geraniol, linalool and thymol are much more potent than phenol. [1] Expectorants and diuretics: When used externally, essential oils like (Lessence de terebenthine) increase microcirculation and provide a slight local anesthetic action. Till now, essential oils are used in a number of ointments, cream and gels, whereby they are known to be very effective in relieving sprains and other articular pains. Oral administration of essential oils like eucalyptus or pin oils, stimulate ciliated epithelial cells to secrete mucus. On the renal system, these are known to increase vasodilation and in consequence bring about a diuretic effect. Spasmolytic and sedative: Essential oils from the Umbellifereae family, Mentha species and verbena are reputed to decrease or eliminate gastrointestinal spasms. These essential oils increase secretion of gastric juices. In other cases, they are known to be effective against insomnia. METHODS OF EXTRACTION: The following are the methods of extraction of Essential Oil and their drawbacks. 2.4.1 Solvent-Extraction: In the Solvent-Extraction method of Essential Oils recovery, an extracting unit is loaded with perforated trays of essential oil plant material and repeatedly washed with the solvent. A hydrocarbon solvent is used for extraction. All the extractable material from the plant is dissolved in the solvent. This includes highly volatile aroma molecules as well as non-aroma waxes and pigments. The extract is distilled to recover the solvent for future use. The waxy mass that remains is known as the concrete. The concentrated concretes are further processed to remove the waxy materials which dilute the pure essential oil. To prepare the absolute from the concrete, the waxy concrete is warmed and stirred with alcohol (ethanol). During the heating and stirring process the concrete breaks up into minute globules. Since the aroma molecules are more soluble in alcohol than the waxes, an efficient separation of the two results. This is not considered the best method for extraction as the solvents can leave a small amount of residue behind which could cause allergies and effect the immune system. 2.4.2 Maceration: Maceration actually creates more of infused oil rather than an Essential Oil. Plant matter is soaked in vegetable oil, heated and strained at which point it can be used for massage. This method is not desirable because it changes the composition of oil. 2.4.2 Cold Pressing: This method is used to extract the Essential Oils from citrus rinds such as orange, lemon, grapefruit and bergamot. This method involves the simple pressing of the rind at about 120 degrees F to extract the oil. The rinds are separated from the fruit, are ground or chopped and are then pressed. The result is a watery mixture of essential oil and liquid which will separate given time. Little alteration from the oils original state occurs these citrus oils retain their bright, fresh, uplifting aromas like that of smelling a wonderfully ripe fruit. The drawback of this method is, oils extracted using this method have a relatively short shelf life. 2.4.3 Effleurage: This is one of the traditional ways of extracting oil from flowers. The process involves layering fat over the flower petals. After the fat has absorbed the essential oils, alcohol is used to separate and extract the oils from the fat. The alcohol is then evaporated and the Essential Oil is collected. 2.4.4 Super Critical CO2 Extraction: Supercritical CO2 extraction (SCO2) involves carbon dioxide heated to 87 degrees F and pumped through the plant material at around 8,000 psi, under these conditions; the carbon dioxide is likened to a dense fog or vapor. With release of the pressure in either process, the carbon dioxide escapes in its gaseous form, leaving the Essential Oil behind. The usual method of extraction is through steam distillation. After extraction, the properties of a good quality essential oil should be as close as possible to the essence of the original plant. The key to a good essential oil is through low pressure and low temperature processing. High temperatures, rapid processing and the use of solvents alter the molecular structure, will destroy the therapeutic value and alter the fragrance. 2.4.5 Turbo Distillation Extraction: Turbo distillation is suitable for hard-to-extract or coarse plant material, such as bark, roots, and seeds. In this process, the plants soak in water and steam is circulated through this plant and water mixture. Throughout the entire process, the same water is continually recycled through the plant material. This method allows faster extraction of essential oils from hard-to-extract plant materials. Dr.A.Sahoo et al have studied that Steam Distillation is a special type of distillation or a separation process for temperature sensitive materials like oils, resins, hydrocarbons, etc. which are insoluble in water and may decompose at their boiling point. The temperature of the steam must be high enough to vaporize the oil present, yet not so high that it destroys the plants or burns the essential oils. The experiment has been carried out for the extraction of oil from Eucalyptus which has high essential oil content. Such Eucalyptus essential oil, which have been used as perfume and chemical raw materials for a long time, are now been studied as renewable sources of energy. G. Anitescu et al have studied that ripe fruits of Coriander sativum L. were extracted by steam distillation and by supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), using CO2 in a two-stage separation system. An inexpensive thermal expansion procedure for supercritical fluid delivery has been developed. The identification of components was performed by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC ±MS). The percentage composition of the 40 identified compounds was compared with the composition of commercial coriander oil extracted by hydro distillation. Roy Teranishi et al have studied that system combines steam distillation and liquid-liquid extraction to recover volatiles from fats and oils. Oil is pumped in at the top of a spinning-band distillation column, in which the oil is heated to100 C and spread to a thin film. As the oil film drops down to the pot, steam, which is introduced at the bottom, travels upward to strip the volatiles from the oil. The steam distillate is extracted in a liquid-liquid extractor incorporated in the system, and the extracted water is recycled as steam. Stripped oil in the pot serves as a liquid seal to force steam up the column. The level of the oil in the pot is maintained automatically by an overflow system. Many liters of oil can be pumped through this system to be stripped of volatiles by steam. The volatiles can be isolated easily from the small amount of solvent recycled in the liquid-liquid extractor. Referring to the above literature review, it was found that Steam Distillation method is an appropriate and economical method for extraction of Essential Oil. 2.4.6 Extraction of Essential Oils Using Steam distillation Method: Steam distillation is a special type of distillation or a separation process for temperature sensitive materials like oils, resins, hydrocarbons, etc. which are insoluble in water and may decompose at their boiling point. The fundamental nature of steam distillation is that it enables a compound or mixture of compounds to be distilled at a temperature substantially below that of the boiling point(s) of the individual constituent(s). Essential oils contain substances with boiling points up to 200 °C or higher temperatures. In the presence of steam or boiling water, however, these substances are volatilized at a temperature close to 100 °C, at atmospheric pressure. Fresh, or sometimes dried, botanical material is placed in the plant chamber of the still and the steam is allows to pass through the herb material under pressure which softens the cells and allows the Essential Oil to escape in vapor form. The temperature of the steam must be high enough to vaporize the oil present, yet not so high that it destroys the plants or burns the Essential Oils.  Besides the steam tiny droplets of Essential Oil evaporates and travel through a tube into the stills condensation chamber. Here Essential Oil vapors condense with the steam.   The essential oil forms a film on the surface of the water.  To separate the Essential Oil from the water, the film is then decanted or skimmed off the top.  The remaining water, a byproduct of distillation, is called floral water, distillate, or hydrosol. It retains many of the therapeutic properties of the plant, making it valuable in skin care for facial mists and toners (A solution containing chemicals that can c hange the color of a photographic  print).   In certain situations, floral water may be preferable to be pure essential oil, such as when treating a sensitive individual or a child, or when a more diluted treatment is required. Rose hydrosol, for example, is commonly used for its mild antiseptic and soothing properties, as well as its pleasing floral aroma. A number of factors determine the final quality of a steam distilled essential oil. Apart from the plant material, most important are time, temperature and pressure, and the quality of the distillation equipment. Essential oils are very complex products. Each is made up of many, sometimes hundreds, of distinct molecules which come together to form the oils aroma and therapeutic properties. Some of these molecules are fairly delicate structures which can be altered or destroyed by adverse environmental conditions. So, much like a fine meal is more flavorful when made with patience, most oils benefit from a long, slow cooking process. It is possible that longer distillation times may give more complete oil. It is also possible however, that longer distillation time may lead to the accumulation of more artifacts than normal. This may have a curious effect of appearing to improving the odor, as sometimes when materials that have a larger number of components are sniffed, the perception i s often of slightly increased sophistication, added fullness and character, and possibly, and extra pleasantness. Advantages of using Steam Distillation: The advantage of Steam Distillation is that it is a relatively cheap process to operate at a basic level, and the properties of oils produced by this method are not altered. As steam reduces the boiling point of a particular component of the oil, it never decomposes in this method. This method apart from being economical, it is also relatively faster than other methods. CHAPTER 3:  EXPERIMENTAL WORK 3.1 Experimental Setup: The schematic diagram of experimental setup is shown below. The experiment was conducted in a Clevengers Apparatus. Apparatus consist of one round bottom flask of 1000ml which is connected with another two way round flask which holds raw material. The top flask is connected with condenser through the connecter. The separating funnel is used for the separation of essential oil and water. 3.2 Experimental Procedure: Fresh leaves (rosemary) or bark (cinnamon) are cut into pieces less than 2 X 2 cm within half a day after collection and 150-200 g boiled with 500 ml of distilled water in a Clevenger apparatus until oil distillation ceased after 5-6 h. The volume of essential oils was determined from a calibrated trap. The essential oils in the distillate were dried over anhydrous Na2SO4 and kept in the freezer. 3.3 Analysis of Essential Oils: Analysis of Essential Oil was done using Gas Chromatography with Mass spectrometer to know the composition of oil and to the quantity of each composition. 3.3.1 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometer: Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) is a method that combines the features of gas-liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry to identify different substances within a test sample. Applications of GC-MS include drug detection, fire investigation, environmental analysis, explosives investigation, and identification of unknown samples. Additionally, it can identify trace elements in materials that were previously thought to have disintegrated beyond identification. [7] Instrumentation: The GC-MS is composed of two major building blocks: the gas chromatograph and the mass spectrometer. The gas chromatograph utilizes a capillary column which depends on the columns dimensions (length, diameter, film thickness) as well as the phase properties (e.g. 5% phenyl polysiloxane). The difference in the chemical properties between different molecules in a mixture will separate the molecules as the sample travels the length of the column. The molecules take different amounts of time (called the retention time) to come out of (elute from) the gas chromatograph, and this allows the mass spectrometer downstream to capture, ionize, accelerate, deflect, and detect the ionized molecules separately. The mass spectrometer does this by breaking each molecule into ionized fragments and detecting these fragments using their mass to charge ratio. These two components, used together, allow a much finer degree of substance identification than either unit used separately. It is not possible to make an accurate identification of a particular molecule by gas chromatography or mass spectrometry alone. The mass spectrometry process normally requires a very pure sample while gas chromatography using a traditional detector (e.g. Flame Ionization Detector) detects multiple molecules that happen to take the same amount of time to travel through the column (i.e. have the same retention time) which results in two or more molecules to co-elute. Sometimes two different molecules can also have a similar pattern of ionized fragments in a mass spectrometer (mass spectrum). Combining the two processes makes it extremely unlikely that two different molecules will behave in the same way in both a gas chromatograph and a mass spectrometer. Therefore when an identifying mass spectrum appears at a characteristic retention time in a GC-MS analysis, it typically lends to increased certainty that the analyte of interest is in the sample. [7] 3.4 Experimental Observation: Experiment had been conducted using different plant materials at different temperatures and time of heating, keeping pressure constant (atmospheric pressure). CHAPTER 4:  RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Inferences: Volume of Essential Oil obtained from a particular plant material was different for different temperatures and at a particular temperature for different time of heating. Volume of Essential Oil obtained is less in comparison to hydrosol of the same plant material. Its variation along with temperature and time of heating is shown in graphs drawn below. 4.1.1 Graph showing variation of Volume of Essential Oil against Temperature, obtained from Orange peels. From the graph we can observe that volume of Essential Oil obtained from orange peels is almost increasing linearly with Temperature, if we ignore the slight decline in volume at 900C. The decline may be due to leakage of vapor during Steam Distillation or because of improper decantation. 4.1.2 Graph showing variation of Volume of Essential Oil against Temperature, obtained from Eucalyptus leaves. From the above graph we can observe that volume of Essential Oil obtained is negligible before the components of the oil reach to their boiling

Essay --

The original synthesis did not go to completion; starting materials remained unreacted. This was confirmed when the purified product was isolated and determined to not be pure (Figure 7). Increasing the amount of solvent (DMF), obtaining a crude HNMR spectrum after 3 hours of the reaction to monitor reaction progress, increasing the reaction length with respect to the findings of the crude HNMR spectrum, obtaining a pH of 2-3 during the acidification (in order to obtain only the carboxylic acid product instead of a mixture with the carboxylate salt) and refining the recrystallization method, are all some of the adjustments to the experimental parameters. When the reaction parameters were changed to 6 hours and the acidified product had a pH of 2-3, a 20% yield of a white, flaky solid of the 4-4 coupling product was obtained. When the reaction parameters were changed to 18 hours, a 32% yield was obtained. However, a significant amount of decarboxylated byproduct was formed. A re crystallization procedure was developed to isolate the pure 4-4 coupled product (See Methods). An alternate synthetic pathway was developed due to the low percent yield and high levels of undesired side products of the reaction. Such characteristics are not ideal for a key starting material in a long synthetic series.Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are poisons that infect humans and are known to cause the human disease botulism 1,2,3,4,5. Having an LD50 of 1.0ng/kg body weight for humans, this makes the botulinum neurotoxin one of the most toxic known poisons still active today. BoNTs are listed as a category A bio threat agent by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1,2,3,4,5. Currently, there is no cure or effective treatme... ... be the most advantageous line of study 1,2,3,4,5. Unlike vaccines, chemically stable small molecules would remain viable for many years due to the dramatically larger half-lives. A large number of peptide-based inhibitors have been explored, but due to their short in vivo lifetimes, they make a poor candidate for new drugs 2. Broad spectrum BoNT inhibitors have been largely attempted to develop, but have rarely been met with success. Therefore, shifting the focus to develop serotype specific inhibitors have been the new focus in combatting botulinum neurotoxins. The overall goal has been modified to develop small, cell-permeable, low molecular weight, non peptidic drug like molecules capable of inhibiting BoNT/A, the deadliest of the seven serotypes. In order to achieve this, small molecule drug development is aimed at inhibiting the LC activity of BoNT/A 5.

Early learning studies Essay

In the first five years of life, a child has gone through rapid development in physical, cognitive, and social/emotional characteristics. Around the time these children start kindergarten, their growth has slowed down. However, it is still vital for the kindergarten teacher to know how their students have developed and what they can do to further develop their students as a whole. According to â€Å"Educating Children in Nursery Schools and Kindergartens† by Lillian L. Gore, by the age of 5 children are learning how to relate to others in a positive manner. This skill forms the basis of all human relations (16). In general, kindergarten-aged children are beginning to develop their own self image and their likes and interests through sensory and other experiences (Gore 16). To a kindergarten-aged child, the world is big and mysterious. The combination of physical, cognitive, and social/emotional development allow these children to explore and begin imposing basic order and control over their environments (Gore 16). Overall, these experiences allow children to understand and appreciate the world around them. When the teacher looks at the overall development of their kindergarten students, the physical, cognitive, and social/emotional aspects are relatively similar across each child. That is to say that each child experiences relatively the same development in all three areas. Physically, a kindergartener has two distinct developmental characteristics. #1 is the individual characteristics such as rate of growth, body build, and eye color (Gore 17). The teacher should respect each child’s unique characteristics and teach others to respect them as well. #2 is each kindergartener has a wide output of energy (Gore 17). A kindergarten teacher should expect their students to be fully active one day and inactive the next. Similarly, the activities the children participate in receive different levels of energy from day to day (Gore 17). Cognitive development in kindergarten in vital for a child to understand and experience all that school and the world have to offer. In Gore’s book, she notes two important cognitive developments that a kindergarten child experiences. #1 is the development of hand-eye coordination (Gore 17). At this stage, children are developing awareness for everything that needs both hands and eyes in order to function properly. As the teacher, you should be aware of the students and their surroundings. Particularly on the playground, the teacher should know the students inability to judge speeds and distances properly (Gore 17). To aid in the development of proper hand-eye coordination, the teacher should incorporate hand-eye coordination lessons and activities into the daily schedule. The second important cognitive development in kindergarteners is that they want to grow and learn (Gore 19). Kindergarten is a stepping stone into what school will be like for the rest of their lives, and the fact that each student wants to grow and learn makes the teacher’s job easier because the students are intrinsically motivated. To further their enjoyment of learning it is important for the teacher to provide conditions for each student to explore, discover, and feed their sense of wonder at their own pace (Gore 19). Teachers should also allow students to think and solve problems at their own pace as well (Gore 19). By letting each student work at his or her own pace, the student feeds their desire to grow and learn and also learns that they are capable of many things. One of the most important developments that kindergarten children make is social and emotional developments. Both these developments aid children in forming friendships, relationships and emotional maturity as their lives continue. Two social developments are highlighted in Gore’s book. #1 is that children will fluctuate their patterns of social growth and they may regress at times (Gore18). This is a natural process that children go through and navigating it can be tricky. As a teacher, we should encourage children to proceed in and out of groups at will (Gore 18). This will allow children to experience many different people and form many friendships. As teachers we should also encourage students to relate an experience with one group of students to experiences with another group (Gore 18). This will allow each student to mentally process each experience and decide which experiences they prefer to have, which in turn leads to them having friends of similar beliefs and interests. Above all, kindergarten children learn how to cooperate with others when they choose which group of students to associate with. The second social characteristic that kindergarten children develop is their preference of children of the same sex as playmates and friends (Gore 18). As a teacher we should support this development and help each child learn appropriate sex role with their peers. In addition, kindergarten teachers should also encourage children of the opposite sex to interact. When it comes to emotional characteristics of development, the #1 characteristic is that children in kindergarten are learning how to accept and give affection (Gore 18). This developmental characteristic is vitally important because if children do not learn how to give and accept affection, then all their relationships with others will be short-lived. We as teachers can help foster this important characteristic by providing warm relationships for emotional growth in the classroom and individually with your students (Gore 18). In addition to the developmental characteristics, a kindergarten teacher must also be aware of how they arrange their classroom. Utilizing space and organizing the classroom to best suit the needs of the students allows each kindergartener to maximize their use of the classroom. In Doris Fromberg’s book â€Å"The Full-day Kindergarten†, it is important to know both the teacher’s and the student’s views on four elements relating to classroom organization. Those four elements are; â€Å"Choice: what the students will be doing. Space: where the students will be engaged. Pacing: when the students will be participating. Social Activity: how and with whom the students will interact† (Fromberg 62). These elements are also applicable to what the students are doing in a kindergarten classroom and what activities they participate in. By understanding when and where to implement these four elements, the classroom experience will be enhanced for all the kindergarten students. In a kindergarten classroom, the students are capable of making choices that are relevant to the school-day procedure (Fromberg 62). When a kindergarten student, or any other person, chooses what to do, their attention is higher to that activity than if they had not chosen. However, this is not to say that kindergarten students enter into an â€Å"anything goes† classroom (Fromberg 62). The teacher has preselected and screened everything that is already in the classroom to ensure that it is safe and educationally-sound. The teacher also screens the materials that students bring from home on the same criteria (Fromberg 62). By ensuring that all materials in the classroom are on the same level and that the children decide what they want to do, they will establish a routine of making independent choices knowing that what they choose will spark their interests and be educationally appropriate. The space and organization of the classroom is an important concept to consider when in a kindergarten classroom. Kindergarten students enjoy moving around and being independent, but also need a sense of stability and security. How the classroom space is organized reflects four characteristics about the teacher and the classroom in general: 1) How independent the students are expected to be. 2) How responsible the students are expected to be. 3) Relays what activities are valued in the classroom. 4) How students will spend their time in the classroom (Fromberg 64). When organizing the classroom, it is important to keep materials where they will be used and in limited-use sections. By creating a section of the room only for writing, or art, or reading, children will be more focused on that activity or feel part of a small group (Fromberg 64). Limited-use sections also help the students answer the question, â€Å"What will I do next? † (Fromberg 64) For example, a child that is finished at the writing center will know that there is nothing more they can accomplish at this center; they decide that they want to work on their art project and move to the appropriate section. By utilizing limited-use sections, the students are minimizing procrastination and are maximizing their ability to select their own choices. By using these elements, Fromberg describes a properly organized kindergarten classroom. In a kindergarten classroom, all materials are stored where they will be used; books are in the reading areas, writing supplies are in the writing area, and art supplies are in the art area. The students work in the areas where the materials are stored. This not only keeps them focused on their tasks, but also eliminates the possibility of misplacing materials. These active work areas should be located away from student desks or other areas where students are meant to concentrate and reflect (Fromberg 64). In addition, the teacher should always organize their classroom where they and the students are visible to each other at all times. This not only allows the teacher to monitor behavior, but it also allow students to see what model behavior looks like. In addition to the organization of the room, there also needs to be proper time management as well. Proper time management can help reduce the issues that arise in those students who have ADHD or other unpredictable behavior patterns (Fromberg 66). In a full day kindergarten classroom, it is beneficial to have a whole-class planning session in the morning and afternoon, with a small gathering before lunch or around 11:00 AM according to Fromberg (66). Kindergarten instructors have found it helpful to provide at least two long activity blocks of 30 minutes or more each day (Fromberg 66). In this time, the students will be engaging with the different sections of the room; art, writing, reading, etc. at their own choice and pace. From having this time to select which activity to do and how long to do it for, the students are inspired to make long-range plans and increase their sense of control over their environment (Fromberg 66). Within the kindergarten environment, the lessons and activities should emphasize academic content but also personal relationships and social behaviors. While kindergarten does prepare students to â€Å"do school† and everything that comes with it, I believe that lessons and activities that stress proper relationship techniques and social behaviors are just as important. For example, kindergarteners may not realize what they say sometimes and although they find nothing wrong with it, the teacher or others students will. Having several lessons on how to talk to other students in a nice and polite way will not only benefit the students in class, but they can take that knowledge and apply it to other situations as well, such as talking to adults. Lessons that demonstrate proper social behaviors and etiquette will also benefit kindergarteners. For example, how to stay quiet and listen while another person is talking or how to solve conflicts in a respectful manner will again not only benefit the students in the classroom, but also prepare them for the world as they grow older. Finally, classroom management is very important in a kindergarten class. A teacher could have a perfectly organized room and excellent lessons, but if they cannot manage their students they will never get a chance to utilize their room or lessons. Firstly, the kindergarten teacher should make a set of class rules for the school year. In addition to their professional opinion, the teacher should ask the students themselves what rules should be followed during the school year. This serves two purposes: 1. it reinforces the element that children are capable of making relevant choices pertaining to school and 2. It allows the students to feel that they have a say in how the classroom is to be run. By having this sense of control, the students are more likely to follow the rules and provide less argument when disruptions arise. Secondly, student behavior accountability should be established. In her article â€Å"Classroom Management†, Jody Camp describes her accountability system. She has four circles displayed in her room, each a different color and face. All the students have a clothes pin with their name on it. Every morning each student starts on the green smiley face. If a student breaks one classroom rule, they move their clothes pin to the yellow face. The yellow face is a warning for the student to start acting correctly. In addition to that, the student loses 5 minutes of recess. If the student breaks another rule, they move to the red face, which means the student needs to stop and think about what they are doing. The student also misses an entire recess. The last face in Jody Camp’s management system is the blue sad face. This means that the student needs to go to the principal’s office (Classroom Management). By implementing these or similar classroom management techniques, any teacher will be successful and be able to focus the majority of their time on educating the minds of America. As a student moves through elementary school and into middle school many changes occur so fast that they may, to the frustration of teachers and parents, act like kindergarteners once more. However, it is important to realize and understand the developmental characteristics of middle school students so they still have a positive educational experience. Similar to kindergarten students, middle school students have their own unique set of physical, cognitive, and social/emotional characteristics. Physically, middle school students are in transition between their childhood bodies and their adult bodies. This leads to three main physical characteristics. Susan Robinson, Guidance Counselor at Southern Columbia School District in Catawissa, PA, nicely lays out physical characteristics of middle school students (5th-8th grade) on her webpage. The first physical characteristic is large muscle development (5th Grade Characteristics). In boys, this means that their arm and leg muscles are becoming more defined, as well as their abdomens. In girls, muscle development leads to growth spurts and gaining weight. The second physical characteristic is the desire to be outdoors and physically challenged (5th Grade Characteristics). It is at this time that both boys and girls become very interested in sports and physical activity. This characteristic can also lead to a decline in school performance because the students are more interested in playing outside than doing homework. The third physical characteristic is that they become restless and in constant motion (6th Grade Characteristics). The need to move and be active can also lead to declining performance because the students won’t be as focused. This can also lead to more discipline because the students can’t stay in one place for extended periods of time. Cognitively, middle school students are now open to more abstract and logical reasoning than ever before. The first cognitive characteristic is that 5th grade students have is an increased memory and ability to abstract (5th Grade Characteristics). The increase in memory potential allows the students to remember more academic information, but also helps them remember social activities like birthday parties and phone numbers. The second cognitive characteristic is the affinity for logical reasoning and problems solving (5th Grade Characteristics). 5th and 6th grade students are now using more of their brain in every aspect of life which allows them to solve and reason more than ever before. Similar to how kindergarten students like to impose control on their environments, middle school students enjoy the feeling of being able to solve a problem or think logically with classmates and teachers. The third cognitive characteristic of middle school students is their increased concentration in all aspects of school (5th Grade Characteristics). With the increase of concentration students are able to read, focus on homework, and participate in activities for longer periods of time. This cognitive gain can help balance out the need for movement during physical development. Middle school is the time when every student starts to define who they are and who they want to be. Socially and emotionally, each middle school student is becoming more mature as they grow older and it is important to know what developmental characteristics these students face. When a student is in 5th grade they are more socially and emotionally sound than 6th graders. The first developmental characteristic of 5th graders is that they are generally content with themselves and others (5th Grade Characteristics). At this stage they are in a state of equilibrium in terms of social and emotional growth. This is not to say that 5th graders are void of anger. When this age group gets angry, they tend to get angrier faster than usual but they also are faster to forgive (5th Grade Characteristics). The second characteristic of 5th graders is that they work well in groups and enjoy team-oriented activities such as sports and clubs (5th Grade Characteristics). Because they are generally content, it boosts 5th graders abilities to work cooperatively. This age group would benefit greatly from pods in the classroom and team-oriented competition. Lastly, 5th graders are mostly truthful and are developing a larger sense of right and wrong (5th Grade Characteristics). At this age, students want to be taken seriously because they feel that they have valuable opinions. They realize that they can’t lie and be taken seriously so they tell the truth. Also, as they are telling the truth more, they are expanding their sense of right and wrong. It is at this point when crucial right/wrong situations should be explained to the students such as drugs and alcohol. When a child hits 6th grade, they change once again and sometimes not for the better. There are three main characteristics of 6th graders from Susan Robinson’s website. The first is that 6th graders become more moody and sensitive (6th Grade Characteristics). 6th graders are starting to hit puberty and this messes with their normal selves. The hormones set off mood swings and sensitivity towards almost any situation. It is important to know this because it could be the cause of many problems with your students. The second characteristic is that 6th graders are becoming more autonomous and with that comes more opposition to rules and punishments (6th Grade Characteristics). As they get older, the students begin to realize that they are held to higher standards but still try to get around those expectations. This inevitably leads to confrontations between teacher and student(s) and the student(s) will test your patience at this age. The third characteristic is more positive. As the students age and grow during 6th grade, they will start to take on an adult personality (6th Grade Characteristics). They will lessen their oppositional behavior and become more respectful and dutiful in school work and social activities. While their bodies are going through a massive amount of change in a short period of time, it is important to layout the classroom, lessons, and management techniques to keep up with these middle school learners. First off, it is important to keep the students in groups when at their desks. This helps the students remain social with others and it helps the students to keep working in teams. As they are older, each student should be given their own desk. This allows the student to become more independent and it allows for individuality to show through if they are permitted to decorate their desk. Similar to the kindergarten room, there should be sections of the room where students can go to complete different assignments. Especially at this time, the movement will allow these students to relieve some tension from their growing bodies. Overall, the classroom at the middle school level starts to become similar to that of high school and college classrooms, but should still represent a sense of home and security for 5th and 6th graders. The lessons and activities that these students participate in should also be developmentally appropriate. At this stage of life, the students are beginning to think and reason logically. Therefore, lessons in math and science can enhance the individual student’s ability to think and reason logically. In addition to logic and reasoning, social skills are key to a healthy development. In 5th and 6th grade, it is important to teach and model proper social etiquette and behaviors. One way to accomplish this is to have the students sit in pods when at their desks. This serves two purposes: 1) it allows each student to work in close proximity to other students and 2) it allows students to practice proper social behavior on a daily basis. Lastly, students at this age are going through major physical changes and it is important to keep that in mind when designing lessons and activities. When possible, incorporate some form of physical movement into your lesson plans. This will allow the students to move their bodies and retain focus in school. If you simply let the students sit at their seats all day, they will become restless very quickly and will lose focus and interest in what you are trying to teach them. Similar to the kindergarten classroom, without successful classroom management techniques, the teacher will struggle to maintain focus and interest in their lessons. With this age group, routines are essential to having successful classroom management. As noted by many teachers, routines help the students to know what is coming next in the school day and how to proceed from one task to the next. With a regular routine, students won’t need to be told to take out their reading materials or their math books; they will already know what is coming. By establishing successful routines, the teacher can minimize distractions and maximize learning time. Another management technique that I remember from 6th grade was the use of a money management system. My teacher, Diane Dale, set up a management system that revolved around the use of a weekly â€Å"allowance† for each student. Each student started the week with a predetermined amount of â€Å"money†, i. e.$100. Actions in class had either a positive or negative effect on the student’s allowance. For example, if one student got a perfect on their math test, they may get $25 added to their account. If another student starts a fight on the playground, besides the consequences of the principal, they may lose $75. At the end of each week the students with the 3 highest allowances got to pick a prize from the â€Å"Class Treasure Chest†. To my recollection, this system worked well in our class and I plan on modifying this management system to create my own. All in all, as an elementary teacher it is important to know and be able to work with students from all age groups. By understanding the characteristics of the students in your class, you will be able to maximize the effectiveness of your lessons because they are aimed to work with their developmental characteristics, not as a substitute. In addition, to knowing developmental characteristics, a teacher should also institute effective classroom management techniques and proper lesson plans that will maximize the learning experience for each student. Works Cited Gore, Lillian L. , and Rose Koury. Educating Children in Nursery School and Kindergartens. Washington: U. S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, 1964. Print. Wills, Clarence Dechent, and Lucile Lindburg. Kindergarten for Today’s Children. Chicago: Follett Educational Corporation, 1967. Print. Fromberg, Doris. The Full-Day Kindergarten. 1995. eBook. Camp, Jody. http://www. atozteacherstuff. com/Tips/Classroom_Management/Managing_Behavior/index. shtml Robinson, Susan. http://www. scasd. us/ms/RobinsonPage/grade5. htm White, George. Incoming 6th Graders. http://www. ringwoodschools. org/files/ryerson/parent_orientation_booklet. pdf.

Company Case Analysis Vershire Company - 1662 Words

Vershire Company Case Analysis Commerce 4AA3 C03 Professor: Janet Pierce Name: Kaiwen Luo Student Number: 001300672 Due date: January 24th, 2017 Introduction Vershire Company is a diversified packaging company with several major divisions, including the Aluminum Can division which is one of the largest manufacturers of aluminum beverage cans in the United States. The Aluminum Can division has to meet customers’ cost and quality specifications or their standards for delivery and customer service, otherwise, customers would choose other available suppliers. Thus, it is important for the company to implement rigid budgetary control system and performance measurement and evaluation system. The major problem Vershire Company faced is†¦show more content†¦These visits are extremely significant since plant managers have an opportunity to explain their situations and controllers can be more familiarized with the rationale behind the numbers. As a result, a more accurate and detailed budget report can be produced. Planning system weaknesses: To begin with, fundamental assumptions, such as new plants, inventory carryovers, packaging trends, etc., which are used for initial sales forecast, are entirely made by corporate headquarters. However, the divisional managers assume full responsibility for the estimates they submitted to the corporate head office. As a result, they have to make efforts to increase the overall accuracy of forecast and avoid making changes in subsequent reviews of the budget. Moreover, each product line uses the same forecasting method. It is ineffective for the company to make accurate budget since factors affecting each product line are different, such as industry trends, customer preferences and so on. Lastly, instead of plant managers, the district sale managers raise the sales budgets. However, the plant managers are held accountable for this budgeted profit number, which is connected with their performance and is not controlled by them. Control system strengths: Initially, divisional general managers are given full control of their businesses except in the areas of raising capital and labor relations. Full control gives divisional managers power to makeShow MoreRelatedVershire695 Words   |  3 PagesCase 4-1 Vershire Company Internal Environment Analysis * Vershire is a diversified packaging company * Several major divisions * One of the largest manufacturers of aluminum beverage cans in the United States. * Plants scattered throughout the U.S * Key players include: CEO, divisional GM, vice presidents of marketing and manufacturing External Environment Analysis Industry competitors: * Five beverage container manufacturers accounted for 88% of the market. Read MoreVershire Company2962 Words   |  12 Pagesescribe the strengths and weaknesses in planning and control systemVershire Company!Settlement:a.    Pros:1.    In 1972 the industry experienced a revolution since the aluminum maker chosetwo kinds of processes in which a piece of metal inserted into the cupand closed at the top.  So in 1996 capable of producing more than2,000 cans per minute, because it has more efficient manufacturing processes.2.    Authorization limitation on the general manager of the division.  Division general manager hasfullRead MoreCase Study 4.1 Vershire Company1508 Words   |  7 PagesManagement Control Systems Case 4-1 Vershire Company The case 4-1 deals with the control system, budgeting process and performance measurement of Vershire Company, a large business in the metal can industry. Vershire experienced a strong pressure as they have to meet the customers` expectations about quality, customer service and prices because otherwise they will take another supplier. This situation leads to a very high demand for efficiency and effectiveness and therefore a good planning and